Dear All
As a nice and simple way to ease you all back in to tectonics after the various challenges of Poole, we are watching Dante's Peak in class, and you have some revision questions based on the order of events in the movie. If you failed to complete them in class, or were absent, or if you are from one of other colleges following the Blog (Hello Queen Mary's in Walsall and thank you for the lovely email!), you can download the questions, watch the movie, and I will post the answers up soon.
Enjoy the movie, it is one of my all time favourites!
Dantes Peak Questions
Enjoy not working on 4B!!
Showing posts with label Volcanoes. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Volcanoes. Show all posts
Friday, 3 February 2012
Friday, 18 November 2011
El Hierro - The Birth of a new Island?
In a timely fashion, just as we start volcanoes in geography, and geology AS, a new island is forming off the coast of the Canaries! This is a rare event, still in its early stages, but well worth following over the coming weeks!
So, the basics, El Hierro is the name of the most westerly of the Canary Islands, long considered by early Europeans to be the end of the world, is is a mountainous and volcanic island formed 1.2 million years ago, and with the largest number of volcanic centres of any of the canaries, totally over 800 identified to date. It is under 300 km2 in total and only one eruption has ever been recorded on the island from the Volcan de Lomo Negro vent in 1793. The eruption lasted a month.A series of landslides have lowered the height and reduced the size, the highest point is now 1501m above sea level.
.
So, what has started in El Hierro is a new Surtseyan eruption, just of shore of El Pinar, a new volcano has been spewing lava and ash into the water column, along with a range of noxious gases. It is however, quite incredibly beautiful:
This satellite image shows the blue-green swirls of volcanic particles and ash mixing with the waters to the west of the Island, the three red dots, circle the epicentre of recent earthquakes on the north coast of the island (image belongs to the NASA Earth Observatory website):
So, what does this mean? Well, the eruption is unusual, as it has persisted for nearly three months, and it could continue and break the surface and become subaerial. At the moment, it is a typical Surtseyan style eruption, named after the Island of Surtsey, part of the Icelandic Rift system. This island formed in 1963, with eruptions persisting for three years, and giving its name to the "Surtseyan" eruption style. The initial phase was similar to El Hierro, but the Island of Surtsey was only preserved when the eruption ceased to be Phreato-magmatic, and lava sealed the surface to ensure the Island will be around until at least 2100. This is a new word for many fo you, a Phreatic eruption is one where the explosions are created by water interacting with the eruptive centre and producing stea, which drives a violent eruption of volcanic fragments and ejectiles. Phreato-magmatic, is where the volcano produces magma, which creates a violent eruption, often producing large eruption columns, and common in any sub-marine eruption in the first phase. Once the Island of Surtsey had breached the surface, and built up enough height to overcome the interaction with waves, the eruption style changed to a more typical basaltic eruption with fire fountains and small lava flows, creating a more stable island, that would resist the onslaught of the North Atlantic waves (You can read a summary of the eruption here). There is also an excellent article written by Erik Clemetti, an assistant Professor of Geology, on Hydro Volcanism with a thorough explanation of water/Magma mixing and some great case study pictures.
Back to El Hierro, the future may be shortlived, possibly only a few years, unless lava breaches the surface of the sea and builds an Island. In which case, it would be likely to follow the route of Surtsey, where subsidence into the crust, and erosion would lower the height, but build coastal depositional features such as this Spit that has been built at Surtsey over the last 50 years:
The island is now a UNESCO world heritage site, and has been studied since it first broke the surface yielding volumes of information about the rate of succession taking place on the island. There are now 30 established species, 69 have been counted in total, and 2-5 new species a year are introduced through a combination of driftwood, bird Guano and travelling insects. A soil has started to form, and the island is home to many seals, and hence regularly patrolled by Orcas. Over time, the island will erode, leaving behind a magma chamber, which will be more resistant due to slower cooling, and the island will eventually look like one of the many other small islands in the Vestmannaeyjar (West Man Islands), of which Heimay, which you have studied and some of you will be visiting, is part:
In a recent update, another island has been born in the Red Sea, the small group of islands owned by Yemen, known as the Zubair group, saw a new island breach the surface in December, information is still sparse, but this is part of the rifting process beneath the Red Sea, that extends through the Rift Valley, and is infact a stage or two further along in the Wilson Cycle than the Rift Valley is at the moment:
So, two new islands to keep an eye on over the coming months, as well as highly speculated and potentially catastophic eruption of Katla (remember Icelandic volcanoes are seasonal, they like to erupt in spring when isostatic pressure is relieved by the ice melt, and creates space in the magma chamber, which theoretically can destabilise the volcano). Icelanders refer to both Hekla and Katla as being "Pregnant" or heavily overdue in terms of eruptive frequency, so watch this space! (Or, more accurately, European airspace).
Tuesday, 3 May 2011
Volcanic Place quizzes!
A new revision activity, aimed at the Upper Sixth, find the case study! Follow the link and the picture, get three clues and then locate the case study on google earth
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 2:
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 3:
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 4:
Question 5:
Question 6:
The other volcanic case studies will be coming your way soon, if anyone fancies making some for the other modules feel free just send me the links and ill post them to FB or the blog.
Happy hunting!
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 2:
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 3:
My placespotting.com quiz
Question 4:
Question 5:
Question 6:
The other volcanic case studies will be coming your way soon, if anyone fancies making some for the other modules feel free just send me the links and ill post them to FB or the blog.
Happy hunting!
Monday, 7 March 2011
Hawaii - New vent forms - spectacular video
Dear All
Todays hot news is a new vent opening up on the Big Island of Hawaii over the weekend. There is some spectacular footage of this new eruption as it started, following a collapse of the Pu'u O'o crater.
This photo shows the very start of the eruption, helicopter for scale, the fissue opened up on saturday after the level of Lava in Pu'u O'o dropped nearly 100m from its previous level. The National Park is now closed until further notice as the fissure has developed to nearly 500m long. This is a fairly rare event and allows scientists to monitor the development of a new volcanic centre.
Over 150 small earthquakes have been recorded at the site, and no homes are at threat, the island has been in continuous eruption since 1983 and is well used to its volcanic hazard. The most significant threats are the potentially high concentrations of sulphur dioxide, which pose the most risk to scientists and those observing the lava, the eruption has already slowed but here are some more shots of the lava and a video of some spectacular lava falls.
Video!
Worth keeping an eye on the news to see how this event develops.
Millie
Todays hot news is a new vent opening up on the Big Island of Hawaii over the weekend. There is some spectacular footage of this new eruption as it started, following a collapse of the Pu'u O'o crater.
This photo shows the very start of the eruption, helicopter for scale, the fissue opened up on saturday after the level of Lava in Pu'u O'o dropped nearly 100m from its previous level. The National Park is now closed until further notice as the fissure has developed to nearly 500m long. This is a fairly rare event and allows scientists to monitor the development of a new volcanic centre.
Over 150 small earthquakes have been recorded at the site, and no homes are at threat, the island has been in continuous eruption since 1983 and is well used to its volcanic hazard. The most significant threats are the potentially high concentrations of sulphur dioxide, which pose the most risk to scientists and those observing the lava, the eruption has already slowed but here are some more shots of the lava and a video of some spectacular lava falls.
Video!
more awesome footage of bubbling basalt:
Worth keeping an eye on the news to see how this event develops.
Millie
Thursday, 3 February 2011
The Awesome Awesomeness of Silica (AKA Volcanology 101)
Hello Everyone!
Exams are over and it is time to get back to the grindstone, just as well we are starting back on one of my favourite areas of study in Earth Sciences which is if course, volcanology. Thinking of volcanology and volcanologists summons up images of Pierce Brosnan in Dantes Peak (Essential geography viewing in terms of spot the errors - clue - you cant drive over lava flows!) and wild majestic peaks covered in snow, well, perhaps only if you are me, as you may have gathered i love volcanoes! (Be warned Icelandic Field trippers, ask me a question and I will talk for hours!).
In reality, understanding and appreciating this particular branch of science hinges on one thing, silica. It controls the nature of the explosion, the shape of the volcano and the produces/hazards, and itself is controlled by plate tectonics. Silica makes volcanoes sticky, explosive and violent, whereas a low silica diet produces runny, flat and effusive gassy volcanoes (they do not trap gas, it escapes easily therefore gas is a hazard).
Silica in its purest form forms quartz, a crystal you have probably seen plenty of times before
Why is silica so important? It traps gas, it melts at low temperatures, is the last thing to solidify out of the melt. Translated into geography talk, the low melting point means that at convergent boundaries, volcanoes above the subduction zone will always be more silicic for two reasons:
1) The sub ducting plate melts, and the lowest temperature forming minerals, melt at the lowest temperatures, this happens to be silica, so the pluton of melt that is released from the melting plate will be enriched in silica, it rises as soon as there is enough melt as it is hotter , and lighter than the surrounding semi- solid mantle.
2) as the pluton rises, it cools, loosing heat to its surroundings, what this means is that the higher temperature forming minerals form a solid mass as the melt cools past their crystallisation temperatures, and being solid they are heavier and sink to the bottom, thus leaving the remaining molten rock enriched in silica
This is why, the most destructive eruptions are always found on convergent margins, and the worst are found when magma rises through the full thickness of a mountain chain. Therefore we can easily identify that continent/ocean convergence zones are the most explosive.
This does not mean that they are the worst volcanoes for people, there are plenty of big acidic eruptions that don't affect us in any way, you need to remember that a risk only becomes a hazard when people are potentially affected, these are the ones such as Sarychev and Shiveluch on the Kamchatka Peninsula (My favourite choice for my next holiday location), Sarychev erupted last year and the images were captured in this spectacular video of the eruption column by satellites:
The Kamchatka Peninsular is sparsely populated, with few major cities and the worlds highest concentration of active volcanoes, most of which are explosive, and the notorious "Valley of Death" a region with a heavy concentration of fumaroles and minor forms of extrusive activity which leads to a near total absence of oxygen in the first metre above ground level, and high concentrations of Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide. Hence, although these are some nasty volcanoes, they pose little risk, and certainly none that cannot be managed by diverting flight paths away from the ash clouds.
That is not to say that our basaltic volcanoes are the most dangerous, indeed quite often they present a significant opportunity for tourism and research, and can bring in many millions a year to an area, in fact Mt St Helens now brings in the vast majority of the Cowlitz and Skamania Countries $105 million per year, with over three million visitors to the National Park every year.
Some Basaltic volcanoes have claimed more lived and done more damage than their more explosive but less frequent sister eruptions. Basic volcanoes may be prettier, with bright glowing lava, but lava can travel for several tens of kilometers from the vent, release far more gas, which could be a more deadly hazard (ie Lake Nyos - Invisible and Odourless).
So, does the difference in impact come down to money? Well, at least in part yes, but there are significant other factors. Disasters that happen during rush hour, or the middle of the night tend to be more deadly, those that occur in cities will always have more of a demographic impact, those that occur in agricultural regions such as Armero will have a wider social implication as the food supply could be affected. Those that have the potential to affect the water supply, either through contamination by decay or pollution, will cause a widespread and possibly ongoing disaster. So in fact, hazards potentially could cause similar levels of destruction, however, the financial impact tends to be more significant in developed countries whereas the social impacts are more significant where money has not allowed hazard planning and mitigation strategies to develop.
The final element for discussion, is whether or not the primary or the secondary impacts are worse, and whether the relationship changes from MDC to LDC? Certainly secondary impacts are harder to address in LDC's. as the three basic necessities are harder to come by (food/shelter/water), and recovery is often slowed by the requirement for aid rather than the country having the financial means to recover independently.
This debate forms the basis for many of the A2 questions, there is no right or wrong, the marks come from discussion and debate around the issues, and the careful use of appropriate case studies. Case studies do not have to be in a lot of detail, hence the need for you two know two eruptions well and anecdotal evidence for a fair few more.
Finally, some of you have been asking about the background picture on my blog, it is in fact a giant natural smoke ring produced by Etna, one of the few volcanoes known to puff giant perfect circles like these:
Don't ask me how or why, it just does and it is fascinating, Stromboli has done it as well, there were a couple in Iceland last year, but they have always struck me as rather fabulous!
See you tomorrow
Millie
Exams are over and it is time to get back to the grindstone, just as well we are starting back on one of my favourite areas of study in Earth Sciences which is if course, volcanology. Thinking of volcanology and volcanologists summons up images of Pierce Brosnan in Dantes Peak (Essential geography viewing in terms of spot the errors - clue - you cant drive over lava flows!) and wild majestic peaks covered in snow, well, perhaps only if you are me, as you may have gathered i love volcanoes! (Be warned Icelandic Field trippers, ask me a question and I will talk for hours!).
In reality, understanding and appreciating this particular branch of science hinges on one thing, silica. It controls the nature of the explosion, the shape of the volcano and the produces/hazards, and itself is controlled by plate tectonics. Silica makes volcanoes sticky, explosive and violent, whereas a low silica diet produces runny, flat and effusive gassy volcanoes (they do not trap gas, it escapes easily therefore gas is a hazard).
Silica in its purest form forms quartz, a crystal you have probably seen plenty of times before
Why is silica so important? It traps gas, it melts at low temperatures, is the last thing to solidify out of the melt. Translated into geography talk, the low melting point means that at convergent boundaries, volcanoes above the subduction zone will always be more silicic for two reasons:
1) The sub ducting plate melts, and the lowest temperature forming minerals, melt at the lowest temperatures, this happens to be silica, so the pluton of melt that is released from the melting plate will be enriched in silica, it rises as soon as there is enough melt as it is hotter , and lighter than the surrounding semi- solid mantle.
2) as the pluton rises, it cools, loosing heat to its surroundings, what this means is that the higher temperature forming minerals form a solid mass as the melt cools past their crystallisation temperatures, and being solid they are heavier and sink to the bottom, thus leaving the remaining molten rock enriched in silica
This is why, the most destructive eruptions are always found on convergent margins, and the worst are found when magma rises through the full thickness of a mountain chain. Therefore we can easily identify that continent/ocean convergence zones are the most explosive.
This does not mean that they are the worst volcanoes for people, there are plenty of big acidic eruptions that don't affect us in any way, you need to remember that a risk only becomes a hazard when people are potentially affected, these are the ones such as Sarychev and Shiveluch on the Kamchatka Peninsula (My favourite choice for my next holiday location), Sarychev erupted last year and the images were captured in this spectacular video of the eruption column by satellites:
The Kamchatka Peninsular is sparsely populated, with few major cities and the worlds highest concentration of active volcanoes, most of which are explosive, and the notorious "Valley of Death" a region with a heavy concentration of fumaroles and minor forms of extrusive activity which leads to a near total absence of oxygen in the first metre above ground level, and high concentrations of Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide. Hence, although these are some nasty volcanoes, they pose little risk, and certainly none that cannot be managed by diverting flight paths away from the ash clouds.
That is not to say that our basaltic volcanoes are the most dangerous, indeed quite often they present a significant opportunity for tourism and research, and can bring in many millions a year to an area, in fact Mt St Helens now brings in the vast majority of the Cowlitz and Skamania Countries $105 million per year, with over three million visitors to the National Park every year.
Some Basaltic volcanoes have claimed more lived and done more damage than their more explosive but less frequent sister eruptions. Basic volcanoes may be prettier, with bright glowing lava, but lava can travel for several tens of kilometers from the vent, release far more gas, which could be a more deadly hazard (ie Lake Nyos - Invisible and Odourless).
So, does the difference in impact come down to money? Well, at least in part yes, but there are significant other factors. Disasters that happen during rush hour, or the middle of the night tend to be more deadly, those that occur in cities will always have more of a demographic impact, those that occur in agricultural regions such as Armero will have a wider social implication as the food supply could be affected. Those that have the potential to affect the water supply, either through contamination by decay or pollution, will cause a widespread and possibly ongoing disaster. So in fact, hazards potentially could cause similar levels of destruction, however, the financial impact tends to be more significant in developed countries whereas the social impacts are more significant where money has not allowed hazard planning and mitigation strategies to develop.
The final element for discussion, is whether or not the primary or the secondary impacts are worse, and whether the relationship changes from MDC to LDC? Certainly secondary impacts are harder to address in LDC's. as the three basic necessities are harder to come by (food/shelter/water), and recovery is often slowed by the requirement for aid rather than the country having the financial means to recover independently.
This debate forms the basis for many of the A2 questions, there is no right or wrong, the marks come from discussion and debate around the issues, and the careful use of appropriate case studies. Case studies do not have to be in a lot of detail, hence the need for you two know two eruptions well and anecdotal evidence for a fair few more.
Finally, some of you have been asking about the background picture on my blog, it is in fact a giant natural smoke ring produced by Etna, one of the few volcanoes known to puff giant perfect circles like these:
Don't ask me how or why, it just does and it is fascinating, Stromboli has done it as well, there were a couple in Iceland last year, but they have always struck me as rather fabulous!
See you tomorrow
Millie
Monday, 24 January 2011
One Week to Go!
Dear Upper Sixth
You are no doubt as relieved as the staff that there is now only one week to go before the Belfast exam, one week is not long, and today's post is a reminder that that this week really needs a final push, you need to keep your interest up and stay on top of the key tips for doing well, so as a written reminder, here is a summary of what you need to be doing:
1) Keep reading the AIB - I know it has been three months, some of you have almost learnt it by heart, but you need to get to the point at which you know it well enough not to have to search for information during the exam to refer to it too much
2) Get on top on the stats tests - you have all done the basics, there are more worked examples coming your way soon, using actual data rather than some made up numbers, you must make sure you question me endlessly until you understand these!
3) Prepare for the questions we know might be coming - the fieldwork (EQA), the most effective part of the regeneration scheme to date, what will have the most significant lasting impact, what are the suggestions for the future (Thank you to the student blog for some "outside the box" thinking on this one!)
4) What are your thoughts - prepare some, they could be almost anything - we have discussed lessening the divide through art, sports, possibly music, media (remember the film) come up with something original and practical that takes into account the history/culture of the region.
5) Remember your words - Geographerise - there are some terms we have used in the sessions on the AIB and the mock that need to form part of your language if you are looking for a top grade - see the brief glossary below - it is by no means exhaustive.
6) Remember that although this is one of the last exams, and I know you are all probably reaching the limit of your motivation to revise and your ability to keep researching, but this is the exam you don't want to retake (it will be an entirely new topic) and with suitable preparation you can do very well in this paper.
Soon we will be back to tectonics, and kicking back of with some comparative volcanic case studies from the last year, Iceland and Merapi, and for earthquakes Haiti and Chile.
So, Statistics....
The ones you need to be able to do
1) Spearmans Rank
2) Mann Whitney U
3) Chi Squared
4) Standard Deviation
5) Inter Quartile Range
6) Averages (Mean, Median and Mode)
You can look at the data and work out what kind of test the data you have lends itself to. You have the websites to get more data, if you have a hypothesis, test it, we will be working on a few in class.
Lastly - the words you need to work into your vocabulary for the next week:
Index of Multiple Deprivation
Sectarian
Inter-Generational Deprivation
Enclave
Peace Walls
Murals
Urban Regeration
De-Industrialization
The Multiplier Effect
The De-Multiplier Effect
My final word for tonight, is an article I stumbled across on segregated cities, truly excellent and a really good read for a summary on the issues in Belfast. I will attempt to condense it tomorrow, but in the meantime do some research!
Hope this helps, and get your stats heads on for the next few days!
Millie
You are no doubt as relieved as the staff that there is now only one week to go before the Belfast exam, one week is not long, and today's post is a reminder that that this week really needs a final push, you need to keep your interest up and stay on top of the key tips for doing well, so as a written reminder, here is a summary of what you need to be doing:
1) Keep reading the AIB - I know it has been three months, some of you have almost learnt it by heart, but you need to get to the point at which you know it well enough not to have to search for information during the exam to refer to it too much
2) Get on top on the stats tests - you have all done the basics, there are more worked examples coming your way soon, using actual data rather than some made up numbers, you must make sure you question me endlessly until you understand these!
3) Prepare for the questions we know might be coming - the fieldwork (EQA), the most effective part of the regeneration scheme to date, what will have the most significant lasting impact, what are the suggestions for the future (Thank you to the student blog for some "outside the box" thinking on this one!)
4) What are your thoughts - prepare some, they could be almost anything - we have discussed lessening the divide through art, sports, possibly music, media (remember the film) come up with something original and practical that takes into account the history/culture of the region.
5) Remember your words - Geographerise - there are some terms we have used in the sessions on the AIB and the mock that need to form part of your language if you are looking for a top grade - see the brief glossary below - it is by no means exhaustive.
6) Remember that although this is one of the last exams, and I know you are all probably reaching the limit of your motivation to revise and your ability to keep researching, but this is the exam you don't want to retake (it will be an entirely new topic) and with suitable preparation you can do very well in this paper.
Soon we will be back to tectonics, and kicking back of with some comparative volcanic case studies from the last year, Iceland and Merapi, and for earthquakes Haiti and Chile.
So, Statistics....
The ones you need to be able to do
1) Spearmans Rank
2) Mann Whitney U
3) Chi Squared
4) Standard Deviation
5) Inter Quartile Range
6) Averages (Mean, Median and Mode)
You can look at the data and work out what kind of test the data you have lends itself to. You have the websites to get more data, if you have a hypothesis, test it, we will be working on a few in class.
Lastly - the words you need to work into your vocabulary for the next week:
Index of Multiple Deprivation
Sectarian
Inter-Generational Deprivation
Enclave
Peace Walls
Murals
Urban Regeration
De-Industrialization
The Multiplier Effect
The De-Multiplier Effect
My final word for tonight, is an article I stumbled across on segregated cities, truly excellent and a really good read for a summary on the issues in Belfast. I will attempt to condense it tomorrow, but in the meantime do some research!
Hope this helps, and get your stats heads on for the next few days!
Millie
Sunday, 16 January 2011
Welcome to my Geography Teaching Blog!
Hello!
This is the first of what will hopefully be a read-worthy blog for the rest of the academic year, it is linked to my Facebook Page - Richuish Geography, and for those of you who havent sussed it yet (hopefully that doesnt apply to my students) I am a Geography teacher!
This blog will be filled with updates on what I hope i have achieved in me A-Level classroom this week, and interesting things I read and think about geography and geology as and when I read or think them! This week, is the final week of the Skills exam for my lower sixth, and the Belfast unit for my upper sixth, who have had their pre-release material since november, and only have to immerse themselves in Belfasts history and development for another two weeks! I feel sure many of them are counting down the days - if thats you, attend the event on the facebook page and share your feelings about Belfast, and preferably any exciting links or resources you have found
This weekend, what has mostly been fascinating me is the new eruption at Mt Etna (see above), I do love my Sicilian volcanoes, and Etna is one of my favourites, i have been many times, three of them with college (we have an unfortunate/fortunate habit of stopping volcanic eruptions by just arriving in the country!), and this weeks NASA Earth Observatory Photo was just stunning (Takes a while to load - http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/48000/48612/etna_tmo_2011011_lrg.jpg) The video foottage showed some fabulous fire fountains, and once again the Sicilians show they are well on track with volcano management, close the airports, divert the flights and then clean up!
Lovely stuff, almost as good as the footage from Vanuatu last year, but I'll save that for another blog. Also on my reading list this week, the horrendous flooding in Brazil, Australia and Sri Lanka. The La Nina effect is in full force this year, shame it is not on the syllabus, but unfortunately we no longer cover El Nino/La Nina oscillations.
Lastly, is a small whinge on my part, if i hear one more person tell me that it was so cold this winter global warming clearly is happening I will start a public service of street lectures on why they are so wrong! Students, climate is our next module, and we do have a lesson called "skeptic bashing" which is a game where you score points for effectively countering common misinterpretations on global climate change - get your best response to that one prepared!
This is the first of what will hopefully be a read-worthy blog for the rest of the academic year, it is linked to my Facebook Page - Richuish Geography, and for those of you who havent sussed it yet (hopefully that doesnt apply to my students) I am a Geography teacher!
This blog will be filled with updates on what I hope i have achieved in me A-Level classroom this week, and interesting things I read and think about geography and geology as and when I read or think them! This week, is the final week of the Skills exam for my lower sixth, and the Belfast unit for my upper sixth, who have had their pre-release material since november, and only have to immerse themselves in Belfasts history and development for another two weeks! I feel sure many of them are counting down the days - if thats you, attend the event on the facebook page and share your feelings about Belfast, and preferably any exciting links or resources you have found
Lovely stuff, almost as good as the footage from Vanuatu last year, but I'll save that for another blog. Also on my reading list this week, the horrendous flooding in Brazil, Australia and Sri Lanka. The La Nina effect is in full force this year, shame it is not on the syllabus, but unfortunately we no longer cover El Nino/La Nina oscillations.
Lastly, is a small whinge on my part, if i hear one more person tell me that it was so cold this winter global warming clearly is happening I will start a public service of street lectures on why they are so wrong! Students, climate is our next module, and we do have a lesson called "skeptic bashing" which is a game where you score points for effectively countering common misinterpretations on global climate change - get your best response to that one prepared!
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